The Ethics
'The Ethics' Summary
The first part of the book addresses the relationship between God and the universe. Spinoza was engaging with a Tradition that held: God exists outside of the universe; God created the universe for a reason; and God could have created a different universe according to his will. Spinoza denies each point. According to Spinoza, God is the natural world. Spinoza concludes the following: God is the substance comprising the universe, with God existing in itself, not somehow outside of the universe; and the universe exists as it does from necessity, not because of a divine theological reason or will.
Spinoza argues through propositions. He holds their conclusion is merely the necessary logical conclusion from combining the provided Definitions and Axioms. He starts with the proposition that "there cannot exist in the universe two or more substances having the same nature or attribute." He follows this by arguing that objects and events must not merely be caused if they occur, but be prevented if they do not. By a logical contradiction, if something is non-contradictory, there is no reason that it should not exist. Spinoza builds from these starting ideas. If substance exists it must be infinite,because if not infinite another finite substance would have to exist to take up the remaining parts of its finite attributes, something which is impossible according to an earlier proposition. Spinoza then uses the Ontological Argument as justification for the existence of God and argues that God (which should be read as "nature", rather than traditional deity) must possess all attributes infinitely. Since no two things can share attributes, "besides God no substance can be granted or conceived."
As with many of Spinoza's claims, what this means is a matter of dispute. Spinoza claims that the things that make up the universe, including human beings, are God's "modes". This means that everything is, in some sense, dependent upon God. The nature of this dependence is disputed. Some scholars say that the modes are properties of God in the traditional sense. Others say that modes are effects of God. Either way, the modes are also logically dependent on God's essence, in this sense: everything that happens follows from the nature of God, just like how it follows from the nature of a triangle that its angles are equal to two right angles. Since God had to exist with the nature he has, nothing that has happened could have been avoided, and if God has fixed a particular fate for a particular mode, there is no escaping it. As Spinoza puts it, "A thing which has been determined by God to produce an effect cannot render itself undetermined." God's creation of the universe is not a decision, much less one motivated by a purpose.
Book Details
Language
EnglishOriginal Language
LatinPublished In
1677Author
Benedict de Spinoza
Dutch Republic
Baruch (de) Spinoza was a Dutch philosopher of Portuguese Sephardi origin. One of the early thinkers of the Enlightenment and modern biblical criticism, including modern conceptions of the self and th...
More on Benedict de SpinozaDownload eBooks
Listen/Download Audiobook
- Select Speed
Related books
The Kingdom of Wisdom by Jiddu Krishnamurti
It is a thought-provoking book that explores the nature of happiness and the keys to finding lasting fulfillment. This book offers valuable insights a...
The Indians in Wisconsin's History by John M. Douglass
Pre-European arrival history of Wisconsin's Native American tribes, with discussions of their way of life, crafts, clothing, shelter, hunting, fishing...
The Corsair by George Gordon, Lord Byron
This is a mesmerizing literary work that takes readers on a thrilling journey through the world of piracy, romance, and rebellion. Written in 1814, th...
Knickerbocker's History of New York, Vol. 1 by Washington Irving
A History of New York, subtitled From the Beginning of the World to the End of the Dutch Dynasty, is an 1809 literary parody on the history of New Yor...
Democracy in America Vol. II by Alexis de Tocqueville
De La Démocratie en Amérique published in two volumes, the first in 1835 and the second in 1840) is a classic French text by Alexis de Tocqueville. It...
Essays on Political Economy by Frederic Bastiat
Bastiat asserted that the only purpose of government is to defend the right of an individual to life, liberty, and property. From this definition, Bas...
The Declaration of Independence of the United States of America by Founding Fathers of the United States
The United States Declaration of Independence is the pronouncement adopted by the Second Continental Congress meeting in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, o...
The Philosophy of Immanuel Kant by Alexander Dunlop Lindsay
This brief commentary on Kant's philosophy is a work that focuses solely on some of the main ideas Kant put forth in the three Critiques. Although not...
Chronicles of Canada Volume 08 - Great Fortress: A Chronicle of Louisbourg 1720-1760 by William Charles Henry Wood
Louisbourg was no mere isolated stronghold which could be lost or won without affecting the wider issues of oversea dominion. On the contrary, it was...
A Letter Concerning Toleration by John Locke
Letter Concerning Toleration by John Locke was originally published in 1689. Its initial publication was in Latin, though it was immediately translate...
Reviews for The Ethics
No reviews posted or approved, yet...